India is a country in South Asia whose name comes from the Indus River. The name `Bharata’ is used as a designation for the country in their constitution referencing the ancient mythological emperor, Bharata, whose story is told, in part, in the Indian epic Mahabharata. According to the writings known as the Puranas (religious/historical texts written down in the 5th century CE) Bharata conquered the whole sub-continent of India and ruled the land in peace and harmony. The land was, therefore, known as Bharatavarsha (`the sub-continent of Bharata’). Homonid activity in the Indian sub-continent stretches back over 250,000 years and it is, therefore, one of the oldest inhabited regions on the planet.
Archaeological excavations have discovered artifacts used by early humans, including stone tools, which suggest an extremely early date for human habitation and technology in the area. While thecivilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt have long been recognized for their celebrated contributions to civilization, India has often been overlooked, especially in the West, though her history and culture is just as rich.
Archaeological excavations have discovered artifacts used by early humans, including stone tools, which suggest an extremely early date for human habitation and technology in the area. While thecivilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt have long been recognized for their celebrated contributions to civilization, India has often been overlooked, especially in the West, though her history and culture is just as rich.
Mohenjo-Daro and Harappan Civilization
The most famous sites of this period are the great cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa both located in present-day Pakistan (Mohenjo-Daro in the Sindh province and Harappa in Punjab) which was part of India until the 1947 CE partition of the country which created the separate nation. Harappa has given its name to the Harappan Civilization (another name for the Indus Valley Civilization) which is usually divided into Early, Middle, and Mature periods corresponding roughly to 5000-4000 BCE (Early), 4000-2900 BCE (Middle), and 2900-1900 BCE (Mature). Harappa dates from the Middle period (c. 3000 BCE) while Mohenjo-Daro was built in the Mature period (c. 2600 BCE). Harappa was largely destroyed in the 19th century when British workers carried away much of the city for use as ballast in constructing the railroad and many buildings had already been dismantled by citizens of the local village of Harappa (which gives the site its name) for use in their own projects. It is therefore now difficult to determine the historical significance of Harappa save that it is clear it was once a significant Bronze Age community with a population of as many as 30,000 people. Mohenjo-Daro, on the other hand, is much better preserved as it lay mostly buried until 1922 CE. The name `Mohenjo-Daro’ means `mound of the dead’ in Sindhi. The original name of the city is unknown although various possibilities have been suggested by finds in the region, among them, the Dravidian name `Kukkutarma’, the city of the cock, a possible allusion to the site as a center of ritual cock-fighting or, perhaps, as a breeding centre for cocks.The Indus Valley Civilization dates to 5000 BCE and grew steadily throughout the lower Ganetic Valley region southwards and northwards to Malwa. The cities of this period were larger than contemporary settlements in other countries, were situated according to cardinal points, and were built of mud bricks, often kiln-fired. Houses were constructed with a large courtyard opening from the front door, a kitchen/work room for the preparation of food, and smaller bedrooms. Family activities seem to have centred on the front of the house, particularly the courtyard and, in this, are similar to what has been inferred from sites in Rome, Egypt, Greece, and Mesopotamia.
Mohenjo-Daro was an elaborately constructed city with streets laid out evenly at right angles and a sophisticated drainage system. The Great Bath, a central structure at the site, was heated and seems to have been a focal point for the community. The citizens were skilled in the use of metals such as copper, bronze, lead and tin (as evidenced by art works such as the bronze statue of the Dancing Girl and by individual seals) and cultivated barley, wheat, peas, sesame, and cotton. Trade was an important source of commerce and it is thought that ancient Mesopotamian texts which mention Magan and Meluhha refer to India generally or, perhaps, Mohenjo-Daro specifically. Artifacts from the Indus Valley region have been found at sites in Mesopotamia though their precise point of origin in India is not always clear.
The people of the Harappan Civilization worshipped many gods and engaged in ritual worship. Statues of various deities (such as, Indra, the god of storm and war) have been found at many sites and, chief among them, terracotta pieces depicting the Shakti (the Mother Goddess) suggesting a popular, common worship of the feminine principle. In about 1500 BCE it is thought another race, known as the Aryans, migrated into India through the Khyber Pass and assimilated into the existing culture, perhaps bringing their gods with them. While it is widely accepted that the Aryans brought the horse to India, there is some debate as to whether they introduced new deities to the region or simply influenced the existing belief structure. The Aryans are thought to have been pantheists (nature worshippers) with a special devotion to the sun and it seems uncertain they would have had anthropomorphic gods.
At about this same time (c. 1700-1500 BCE) the Harappan culture began to decline. Scholars cite climate change as one possible reason. The Indus River is thought to have begun flooding the region more regularly (as evidenced by approximately 30 feet or 9 metres of silt at Mohenjo-Daro) and the great cities were abandoned. Other scholars cite the Aryan migration as more of an invasion of the land which brought about a vast displacement of the populace. Among the most mysterious aspects of Mohenjo-Daro is the vitrification of parts of the site as though it had been exposed to intense heat which melted the brick and stone. This same phenomenon has been observed at sites such as Traprain Law in Scotland and attributed to the results of warfare. Speculation regarding the destruction of the city by some kind of ancient atomic blast (possibly the work of aliens from other planets) is not generally regarded as credible.
Mohenjo-Daro was an elaborately constructed city with streets laid out evenly at right angles and a sophisticated drainage system. The Great Bath, a central structure at the site, was heated and seems to have been a focal point for the community. The citizens were skilled in the use of metals such as copper, bronze, lead and tin (as evidenced by art works such as the bronze statue of the Dancing Girl and by individual seals) and cultivated barley, wheat, peas, sesame, and cotton. Trade was an important source of commerce and it is thought that ancient Mesopotamian texts which mention Magan and Meluhha refer to India generally or, perhaps, Mohenjo-Daro specifically. Artifacts from the Indus Valley region have been found at sites in Mesopotamia though their precise point of origin in India is not always clear.
The people of the Harappan Civilization worshipped many gods and engaged in ritual worship. Statues of various deities (such as, Indra, the god of storm and war) have been found at many sites and, chief among them, terracotta pieces depicting the Shakti (the Mother Goddess) suggesting a popular, common worship of the feminine principle. In about 1500 BCE it is thought another race, known as the Aryans, migrated into India through the Khyber Pass and assimilated into the existing culture, perhaps bringing their gods with them. While it is widely accepted that the Aryans brought the horse to India, there is some debate as to whether they introduced new deities to the region or simply influenced the existing belief structure. The Aryans are thought to have been pantheists (nature worshippers) with a special devotion to the sun and it seems uncertain they would have had anthropomorphic gods.
At about this same time (c. 1700-1500 BCE) the Harappan culture began to decline. Scholars cite climate change as one possible reason. The Indus River is thought to have begun flooding the region more regularly (as evidenced by approximately 30 feet or 9 metres of silt at Mohenjo-Daro) and the great cities were abandoned. Other scholars cite the Aryan migration as more of an invasion of the land which brought about a vast displacement of the populace. Among the most mysterious aspects of Mohenjo-Daro is the vitrification of parts of the site as though it had been exposed to intense heat which melted the brick and stone. This same phenomenon has been observed at sites such as Traprain Law in Scotland and attributed to the results of warfare. Speculation regarding the destruction of the city by some kind of ancient atomic blast (possibly the work of aliens from other planets) is not generally regarded as credible.
The Vedic Period
In addition to the archaeological legacy discussed above, there remains from this period the earliest literary record of Indian culture, the Vedas. Composed in archaic, or Vedic, Sanskrit, generally dated between 1500 and 800 bce, and transmitted orally, the Vedas comprise four major texts—the Rig-, the Sama-, the Yajur-, and the Atharvaveda. Of these, the Rigveda is believed to be the earliest. The texts consist of hymns, charms, spells, and ritual observations current among the Indo-European-speaking people known as Aryans (from Sanskrit arya, “noble”), who presumably entered India from the Iranian regions.
Theories concerning the origins of the Aryans, whose language is also called Aryan, relate to the question of what has been called the Indo-European homeland. In the 17th and 18th centuries ce, European scholars who first studied Sanskrit were struck by the similarity in its syntax and vocabulary to Greek and Latin. This resulted in the theory that there had been a common ancestry for these and other related languages, which came to be called the Indo-European group of languages. This in turn resulted in the notion that Indo-European-speaking peoples had a common homeland from which they migrated to various parts of Asia and Europe. The theory stirred intense speculation, which continues to the present day, regarding the original homeland and the period or periods of the dispersal from it. The study of Vedic India is still beset by “the Aryan problem,” which often clouds the genuine search for historical insight into this period.
That there was a migration of Indo-European speakers, possibly in waves, dating from the 2nd millennium bce, is clear from archaeological and epigraphic evidence in western Asia. Mesopotamia witnessed the arrival about 1760 bce of the Kassites, who introduced the horse and the chariot and bore Indo-European names. A treaty from about 1400 bcebetween the Hittites, who had arrived in Anatolia about the beginning of the 2nd millennium bce, and the Mitanni empire invoked several deities—Indara, Uruvna, Mitira, and the Nasatyas (names that occur in the Rigveda as Indra, Varuna, Mitra, and the Ashvins). An inscription at Bogazköy in Anatolia of about the same date contains Indo-European technical terms pertaining to the training of horses, which suggests cultural origins in Central Asia or the southern Russian steppes. Clay tablets dating to about 1400 bce, written at Tell el-Amarna (in Upper Egypt) in Akkadian cuneiform, mention names of princes that are also Indo-European.
Nearer India, the Iranian plateau was subject to a similar migration. Comparison of Iranian Aryan literature with the Vedas reveals striking correspondences. Possibly a branch of the Iranian Aryans migrated to northern India and settled in the Sapta Sindhu region, extending from the Kābul River in the north to the Sarasvati and upper Ganges–Yamuna Doab in the south. The Sarasvati, the sacred river at the time, is thought to have dried up during the later Vedic period. Conceived as a goddess (see Sarasvati), it was personified in later Hinduism as the inventor of spoken and written Sanskrit and the consort of Brahma, promulgator of the Vedas. It was in the Sapta Sindhu region that the majority of the hymns of the Rigveda were composed.
The Rigveda is divided into 10 mandalas (books), of which the 10th is believed to be somewhat later than the others. Each mandala consists of a number of hymns, and mostmandalas are ascribed to priestly families. The texts include invocations to the gods, ritual hymns, battle hymns, and narrative dialogues. The 9th mandala is a collection of all the hymns dedicated to soma, the unidentified hallucinogenic juice that was drunk on ritual occasions.
Few events of political importance are related in the hymns. Perhaps the most impressive is a description of the battle of the 10 chiefs or kings: when Sudas, the king of the preeminentBharatas of southern Punjab, replaced his priest Vishvamitra with Vasishtha, Vishvamitra organized a confederacy of 10 tribes, including the Puru, Yadu, Turvashas, Anu, and Druhyu, which went to war against Sudas. The Bharatas survived and continued to play an important role in historical tradition. In the Rigveda the head of a clan is called the raja; this term commonly has been translated as “king,” but more recent scholarship has suggested “chief” as more appropriate in this early context. If such a distinction is recognized, the entire corpus of Vedic literature can be interpreted as recording the gradual evolution of the concept of kingship from earlier clan organization. Among the clans there is little distinction between Aryan and non-Aryan, but the hymns refer to a people, called the dasyus, who are said to have had an alien language and a dark complexion and to worship strange gods. Some dasyus were rich in cattle and lived in fortified places (puras) that were often attacked by the god Indra. In addition to the dasyus, there were the wealthy Panis, who were hostile and stole cattle.
The early Vedic was the period of transition from nomadic pastoralism to settled village communities intermixing pastoral and agrarian economies. Cattle were initially the dominant commodity, as indicated by the use of the words gotra (“cowpen”) to signify the endogamous kinship group and gavishti (“searching for cows”) to denote war. A patriarchal extended family structure gave rise to the practice of niyoga (levirate), which permitted a widow to marry her husband’s brother. A community of families constituted a grama. The term vish is generally interpreted to mean “clan.” Clan assemblies appear to have been frequent in the early stages. Various categories of assemblies are mentioned, such asvidatha, samiti, and sabha, although the precise distinctions between these categories are not clear. The clan also gathered for the yajna, the Vedic sacrifice conducted by the priest, whose ritual actions ensured prosperity and imbued the chief with valour. The chief was primarily a war leader with responsibility for protecting the clan, for which function he received a bali (“tribute”). Punishment was exacted according to a principle resembling thewergild of ancient Germanic law, whereby the social rank of a wronged or slain man determined the compensation due him or his survivors.
The sequence of development in the literature does not parallel a migration into India but the historical development of civilization in India from the Sarasvati to the Ganges'. In the 5th century BC, Siddhartha Gautama founded the religion of Buddhism, a profoundly influential work of human thought still espoused by much of the world. In the same another religion called Jainism was founded byMahavira.
Around 500 BC, when the Persian kings Cyrus and Darius, pushing their empire eastward, conquered the ever-prized Indus Valley. The Persians were in turn conquered by the Greeks under Alexander the Great, who came as far as the Beas River, where he defeated king Porus and an army of 200 elephants in 326 BC. The tireless, charismatic conqueror wanted to extend his empire even further eastward, but his own troops (undoubtedly exhausted) refused to continue. Alexander returned home, leaving behind garrisons to keep the trade routes open.
The Great Empires of India
Persia held dominance in northern India until the conquest of Alexander the Great in 327 BCE. One year later, Alexander had defeated the Achaemenid Empire and firmly conquered the Indian subcontinent. Again, foreign influences were brought to bear on the region giving rise to the Greco-Buddhist culture which impacted all areas of culture in northern India from art to religion to dress. Statues and reliefs from this period depict Buddha, and other figures, as distinctly Hellenic in dress and pose (known as the Gandhara School of Art). Following Alexander’s departure from India, the Maurya Empire (322-185 BCE) rose under the reign of Chandragupta Maurya (322-298) until, by the end of the third century BCE, it ruled over almost all of northern India.After gaining control over the important kingdom of Magadha in the Ganges valley, Chandragupta attacked the Greeks. Parts of the Indus province were handed over to the Mauryan king.
Chandragupta’s son, Bindusara reigned between 298-272 BCE and extended the empire throughout the whole of India. His son was Ashoka the Great (lived 304-232, reigned 269-232 BCE) under whose rule the empire flourished at its height. Eight years into his reign, Ashoka conquered the eastern city-state of Kalinga which resulted in a death toll numbering over 100,000. Shocked at the destruction and death, Ashoka embraced the teachings of the Buddha and embarked on a systematic programme advocating Buddhist thought and principles. He established many monasteries and gave lavishly to Buddhist communities. His ardent support of Buddhist values eventually caused a strain on the government both financially and politically as even his grandson, Sampadi, heir to the throne, opposed his policies. By the end of Ashoka’s reign the government treasury was severely depleted through his regular religious donations and, after his death, the empire declined rapidly.
The country splintered into many small kingdoms and empires (such as the Kushan Empire) in what has come to be called the Middle Period. This era saw the increase of trade with Rome (which had begun c. 130 BCE) following Augustus Caesar’s conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE (Egypt had been India’s most constant partner in trade in the past). This was a time of individual and cultural development in the various kingdoms which finally flourished in what is considered the Golden Age of India under the reign of the Gupta Empire (320-550 CE).
The Gupta Empire is thought to have been founded by one Sri Gupta (`Sri’ means `Lord’) who probably ruled between 240-280 CE. As Sri Gupta is thought to have been of the Vaishya (merchant) class, his rise to power in defiance of the caste system is unprecedented. He laid the foundation for the government which would so stabilize India that virtually every aspect of culture reached its height under the reign of the Guptas. Philosophy, literature, science, mathematics, architecture, astronomy, technology, art, engineering, religion, and astronomy, among other fields, all flourished during this period, resulting in some of the greatest of human achievements. The Puranas of Vyasa were compiled during this period and the famous caves of Ajanta and Ellora, with their elaborate carvings and vaulted rooms, were also begun. Kalidasa the poet and playwright wrote his masterpiece Shakuntala and the Kamasutra was also written, or compiled from earlier works, by Vatsyayana. Varahamihira explored astronomy at the same time as Aryabhatta, the mathematician, made his own discoveries in the field and also recognized the importance of the concept of zero, which he is credited with inventing. As the founder of the Gupta Empire defied orthodox Hindu thought, it is not surprising that the Gupta rulers advocated and propagated Buddhism as the national belief and this is the reason for the plentitude of Buddhist works of art, as opposed to Hindu, at sites such as Ajanta and Ellora.
Chandragupta’s son, Bindusara reigned between 298-272 BCE and extended the empire throughout the whole of India. His son was Ashoka the Great (lived 304-232, reigned 269-232 BCE) under whose rule the empire flourished at its height. Eight years into his reign, Ashoka conquered the eastern city-state of Kalinga which resulted in a death toll numbering over 100,000. Shocked at the destruction and death, Ashoka embraced the teachings of the Buddha and embarked on a systematic programme advocating Buddhist thought and principles. He established many monasteries and gave lavishly to Buddhist communities. His ardent support of Buddhist values eventually caused a strain on the government both financially and politically as even his grandson, Sampadi, heir to the throne, opposed his policies. By the end of Ashoka’s reign the government treasury was severely depleted through his regular religious donations and, after his death, the empire declined rapidly.
The country splintered into many small kingdoms and empires (such as the Kushan Empire) in what has come to be called the Middle Period. This era saw the increase of trade with Rome (which had begun c. 130 BCE) following Augustus Caesar’s conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE (Egypt had been India’s most constant partner in trade in the past). This was a time of individual and cultural development in the various kingdoms which finally flourished in what is considered the Golden Age of India under the reign of the Gupta Empire (320-550 CE).
The Gupta Empire is thought to have been founded by one Sri Gupta (`Sri’ means `Lord’) who probably ruled between 240-280 CE. As Sri Gupta is thought to have been of the Vaishya (merchant) class, his rise to power in defiance of the caste system is unprecedented. He laid the foundation for the government which would so stabilize India that virtually every aspect of culture reached its height under the reign of the Guptas. Philosophy, literature, science, mathematics, architecture, astronomy, technology, art, engineering, religion, and astronomy, among other fields, all flourished during this period, resulting in some of the greatest of human achievements. The Puranas of Vyasa were compiled during this period and the famous caves of Ajanta and Ellora, with their elaborate carvings and vaulted rooms, were also begun. Kalidasa the poet and playwright wrote his masterpiece Shakuntala and the Kamasutra was also written, or compiled from earlier works, by Vatsyayana. Varahamihira explored astronomy at the same time as Aryabhatta, the mathematician, made his own discoveries in the field and also recognized the importance of the concept of zero, which he is credited with inventing. As the founder of the Gupta Empire defied orthodox Hindu thought, it is not surprising that the Gupta rulers advocated and propagated Buddhism as the national belief and this is the reason for the plentitude of Buddhist works of art, as opposed to Hindu, at sites such as Ajanta and Ellora.
Invasions and empires to A.D. 500
The Persian and Greek invasions. The wealth of India, with its fine cities and prosperous villages, attracted the attention of foreign invaders. In 530 B.C., the Persian (Iranian) emperor Cyrus the Great invaded India. The Persians seized Gandhara (modern Afghanistan and parts of the Punjab) as the 20th satrapy (province) of Cyrus's Achaemenid Empire.
Two hundred years later, an even more formidable conqueror invaded India. He was Alexander the Great, king of Macedonia. Alexander defeated and overran the mighty Persian Empire. He founded a number of kingdoms in Asia. His invasion of India in 326 B.C. was the first recorded military encounter between the people of ancient India and the Greeks. At a battle fought near the Hydaspes River (modern Jhelum), he vanquished many Indian warriors.
The Hindu warrior rulers of India took great pride in their military valour. So the Greeks' triumph came as a considerable shock. However, Alexander had extended his conquests too far. His troops refused to follow him further, and he was forced to turn back.
A native ruler of northern India, Chandragupta Maurya, took advantage of the political instability created by Alexander's invasion. Chandragupta (called Sandracottas by the Greek historians) began a career of conquest as the king of the small Nanda kingdom (321 B.C.).
The rise of the Mauryas.
In India, Alexander left Seleucus Nikator to rule over the Greek-controlled province on the Indus River. After gaining control over the important kingdom of Magadha in the Ganges valley, Chandragupta attacked the Greeks. Parts of the Indus province were handed over to the Mauryan king.
In India, Alexander left Seleucus Nikator to rule over the Greek-controlled province on the Indus River. After gaining control over the important kingdom of Magadha in the Ganges valley, Chandragupta attacked the Greeks. Parts of the Indus province were handed over to the Mauryan king.
Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara in 297 B.C. At Bindusara's death, 25 years later, most of the Indian subcontinent from the north to the far south was ruled by the Mauryas. Bindusara campaigned so successfully in the Deccan that even the Tamil-speaking poets of southern India described the triumphant progress of his war chariots.
Asoka. The Maurya Empire reached the height of its political power with the accession of the emperor Asoka some time after 272 B.C. For the first time, Indian historical literary sources are supported by inscriptions on stone pillars, which were set up throughout India.
Asoka, a Hindu exercising authority over the whole of India, formally converted to Buddhism. Buddhism teaches its followers to refrain from killing and violence. Asoka's conversion followed the military campaign against Orissa in the southeast in 261 B.C., during which many hundreds of thousands of people were slain.
After his conversion to Buddhism, Asoka gave up wars of conquest. The inscriptions recording his edicts (laws) describe Asoka as a king favoured by the gods, and one who actively spread the Buddhist religion. His empire was well governed. It was divided into provinces ruled by imperial officials, who collected taxes from prosperous villages.
Central Asian invasions.
After the reign of Asoka, the Maurya Empire began to decline slowly. It was replaced in about 180 B.C. by the Brahmanic dynasty of the Shungas. Their capital was Ujjain in western India. This was a period of troubles for India. There were repeated invasions of northern India, by Greeks from Bactria, by Parthians from Persia (Iran), and by various Turkish tribes of central Asia. This led to constant wars and political instability.
Demetrios, a descendant of one of Alexander the Great's generals, crossed the Hindu Kush mountains in Afghanistan, and founded a Greek kingdom in the Punjab. Its greatest ruler was King Menander, who ruled from about 155 to 150 B.C. Greek rule in northern India was in turn overset by central Asian invasions. These were led by people known as the Sakas or Scythians.After the reign of Asoka, the Maurya Empire began to decline slowly. It was replaced in about 180 B.C. by the Brahmanic dynasty of the Shungas. Their capital was Ujjain in western India. This was a period of troubles for India. There were repeated invasions of northern India, by Greeks from Bactria, by Parthians from Persia (Iran), and by various Turkish tribes of central Asia. This led to constant wars and political instability.
The Kushanas.
In the A.D. 100's another central Asian tribe, the Kushanas, invaded India. They established a powerful empire. Under the Kushan ruler Kanishka, this empire extended from Sinkiang (in what is now Chinese Turkestan) to Varanasi in eastern India. The large size of the Kushan Empire, and its political success, were matched by its cultural achievements. The Kushan rulers were influenced in both art and religion by Greek, Persian, and Indian traditions. They minted gold coins in Persian and Greek style. Buddhist religious architecture reached new heights of splendour. Chinese travellers left descriptions of the flourishing state of the Buddhist monasteries.
Cultural and scientific achievements.
The history of the Indian subcontinent after the Kushan Empire (from about A.D. 300) is marked by the rise of a number of dynasties (a series of rulers from the same family). These dynasties ruled over fragmented regions. However, this was a period of great intellectual triumphs for Sanskrit learning and of scientific discoveries. Sanskrit grammar was written down in a form which became standard. Brahman linguists (language scholars) worked out all the major rules regarding the science of language and sounds (known today as phonetics). Indian script (writing) was formalized, and could represent all the sounds produced by the human voice.
Indian mathematicians used the number zero (0) and the concept of negative numbers. Art, literature, and philosophy flourished, providing many fine examples of the genius of ancient India. Sanskrit culture was greatly influenced by Western thought and civilization, through contacts with the Greeks, Romans, and Persians. Varahamihira, an Indian philosopher, wrote that the Greeks, although impure according to the Vedic ritualistic practices, should be honoured because they excelled in science, mathematics, and the arts.The history of the Indian subcontinent after the Kushan Empire (from about A.D. 300) is marked by the rise of a number of dynasties (a series of rulers from the same family). These dynasties ruled over fragmented regions. However, this was a period of great intellectual triumphs for Sanskrit learning and of scientific discoveries. Sanskrit grammar was written down in a form which became standard. Brahman linguists (language scholars) worked out all the major rules regarding the science of language and sounds (known today as phonetics). Indian script (writing) was formalized, and could represent all the sounds produced by the human voice.
Trade with the West.
Western influence was brought to India not only by Greek, Persian, and central Asian invaders, but also through sea and land trade between the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, and the Roman Empire. This trade, and the value of India's exports to the West, was large. The Roman historian Pliny, writing in the A.D. 100's, complained that each year a vast quantity of gold and silver left the Roman Empire to pay for spices, textiles, and other luxury goods imported from India. The details of this seaborne trade were described by an unknown sailor or merchant of Alexandria, Egypt, in a book called the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. It mentions all the major trading ports in the Red Sea and western India, and also the main articles of trade. These articles included spices, black pepper, cotton and silk cloth, perfumes, aromatic gums, rare woods, and various kinds of grain. Archaeologists excavating sites in western and southern India have confirmed the descriptions in the Periplus. They have found a large quantity of Roman coins, pottery, glass, and other objects at sites that were once important trading ports on the Indian coasts. The author of the Periplus also refers to the Greek discovery of the annual monsoon winds in the Indian Ocean . These winds made it possible for ships to sail to India from the Red Sea or the Persian Gulf, and return within one calendar year. According to the Periplus, a sailor called Hippalos made the first trading voyage.
The Gupta Empire.
The rise of the Gupta dynasty in the A.D. 300's brought about a golden age lasting until about A.D. 500. Each Gupta ruler enlarged the empire. India was not a unified nation, or a land with people speaking one language. The ethnic and dynastic divisions were reflected in the existence of numerous separate kingdoms. From time to time in Indian history great imperial powers emerged, and brilliant soldiers and statesmen united the country. The diverse identities of the separate kingdoms, and of the people, were not destroyed. But the emperor claimed universal rule, and demanded submission and allegiance from conquered princes.
The rise of the Gupta dynasty in the A.D. 300's brought about a golden age lasting until about A.D. 500. Each Gupta ruler enlarged the empire. India was not a unified nation, or a land with people speaking one language. The ethnic and dynastic divisions were reflected in the existence of numerous separate kingdoms. From time to time in Indian history great imperial powers emerged, and brilliant soldiers and statesmen united the country. The diverse identities of the separate kingdoms, and of the people, were not destroyed. But the emperor claimed universal rule, and demanded submission and allegiance from conquered princes.
The Gupta dynasty came to prominence with the conquests of Chandragupta I (320-335). Coins minted in his reign bear the title "overlord of great kings." His son, Samudragupta (335-375), was perhaps the greatest imperial conqueror of ancient India. He extended the Gupta Empire from northern India to the far south. One of the inscriptions set up in his reign mentions that he had conquered no fewer than 13 princes of the south. The conquests of the Guptas continued under Chandragupta II (375-415), who assumed the grand title of Vikramaditya (Sun of Power and Majesty).
After the end of the reign of Kumaragupta in 454, the Gupta Empire began to weaken and break up
Harsha.
The last great Hindu king of India was Harsha, who reigned from 606 to 647. Harsha's biography was written by his court poet, the Sanskritic writer Bana. Life in India during Harsha's rule was also described by a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim called Hsuan Tsang.
The last great Hindu king of India was Harsha, who reigned from 606 to 647. Harsha's biography was written by his court poet, the Sanskritic writer Bana. Life in India during Harsha's rule was also described by a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim called Hsuan Tsang.
Harsha ruled for 41 years. He was lord over the rulers of the Punjab, Kashmir, Nepal, and central India. However, unlike the Guptas, Harsha was not able to extend his power to southern India, which was ruled at that time by three powerful dynasties, the Pallavas, Pandyas, and Cholas. The Cholas were a formidable military power on land and sea.
Expansion of Indian influence. Hindu Sanskritic culture was not able to expand much beyond Afghanistan, because of the influence of the powerful Persian and Greek-Roman civilizations. Buddhism, which had its spiritual roots in Nepal, did spread to central Asia and China through the northern trade routes from India. However, it was in the eastern Indian Ocean and in southern India that ancient Indian civilization expanded most of all.
From about the 600's, Brahmanic and Buddhist influence began to spread to Southeast Asia, to the ancient island kingdoms of Java, Sumatra, and what is now Indochina. Southeast Asian princes built Hindu and Buddhist temples modelled on the Indian pattern. They also adopted Indian court traditions. There were close political, commercial, and artistic links between the Chola kings and the rulers of Sumatra. But relations were not always friendly. An inscription dated 1025 claims that one of the greatest kings of the Chola dynasty, Rajendrachola (1014-1044), led a naval expedition to the Sumatran kingdom of Srivijaya and defeated its ruler. Such an expedition across the dangerous Bay of Bengal would not have been possible without mastery of the sea routes and shipbuilding technology gained over many centuries in the course of trade between India and Southeast Asia.
The intellectual and artistic vigour of Hindu India was noted by foreign visitors. These travellers included Chinese pilgrims visiting Buddhist holy places, and Muslim Arabs who went to India to trade and to spread their religion, Islam.
MUSLIM DYNASTIES IN INDIA'S HISTORY
Muslim dynasties which figure in the history of India are divided, by modern historians of medieval India into two categories - Imperial and Provincial. Dynasties which ruled from Delhi/Agra are called Imperial Dynasties, whatever might have been the extent of their domain or power. On the other hand, dynasties which ruled independently of Delhi/Agra are labelled as Provincial Dynasties, even though some of them overshadowed the contemporary Imperial Dynasties in terms of territory controlled, or power wielded, or both.
Strangely enough, the Yamînîs of Ghazni and the Shanshabãnîs of Ghûr are not included in any of the two categories. They are supposed to be foreign dynasties having their seats outside India proper and being interested in expanding their domain in Islamic lands to their west and north as well. Medieval Muslim historians, however, do not look at the Yamînîs and the Shanshabãnîs in that way; they regard both of them as inextricably entwined with the history of India. We agree with the medieval Muslim historians. Firstly, Afghanistan was very much a part of India not only in the days of these dynasties but till as late as the disintegration of the Mughal empire in the eighteenth century. Secondly, the so-called Indian dynasties were prevented from intervening in the larger world of Islam not by any lack of willingness on their part but because, starting with the rise of the Mongols in the first quarter of the thirteenth century, the powers that arose in Persia and Transoxiana made it difficult for them to do so.
In any case, there is nothing Indian about any of the Muslim dynasties, no matter from where they functioned. All of them were equally foreign in terms of inspiration and behaviour, even if not always in terms of blood. A bandit who breaks into my house with sword in hand and occupies it by means of brute force, does not become a member of my family simply because he lives under my roof and fattens on my food; he remains a bandit, no matter how long the occupation lasts. He never acquires moral or legal legitimacy. Nor does that member of my family who takes to the ways of the bandit retain the ties which once bound us together; I am fully within my rights to look at him also as one of the bandit team. I am not impressed at all if the bandit believes in a right acquired by conquest or bestowed by a being named Allãh, and quotes from a book he deems as divine. Nor am I prepared, like Jawaharlal Nehru and his degenerate secularist clan, to consider the bandit a member of my family, simply because he drags into his bed my sister or daughter or some other female from my household. I am not called upon to recognize his right to rule over me, and hesitate in throwing him out as soon as I can muster the strength to do so. I am, therefore, treating as foreign to India, more so to the intrinsic spirit of Indian culture, all Muslim dynasties which figure in the Islamic invasion of or rule over this country or any of its parts.
A brief descriptions of these dynasties together with the number of rulers which each of them had, is given below. Each king who figures in our citations, epigraphic or literary, is being given his number in the order of dynastic succession together with his reign-period.1 That should suffice to place him and his doings in a proper historical perspective.
The dynasties have been listed in a chronological order, that is, with reference to the time at which they arose. There are several dynasties and many rulers who do not figure in our citations. That does not mean that none of them can be credited with the pious performance of destroying Hindu places of worship. For all we know, those dynasties and kings figure in histories which have remained inaccessible to us, particularly the provincial and local histories and the biographies of individual kings and commanders. The doings of sufis in this particular context are being taken up in subsequent volume of this series.
India had suffered the first attack from Islamic imperialism as early as 634, only two years after the death of the prophet of Islam at Medina; it was a naval expedition sent to the coast of Maharashtra in reign of Caliph Umar. This as well as many other expeditions mounted in subsequent years were repulsed from the coasts of Gujarat and Sindh, and the borders of Makran, Kabul and Zabul; in some of them the invaders suffered great slaughter and their military commanders were either killed or had to be ransomed out.
It was only in 712 that an Islamic invasion succeeded in occupying Sindh, Multan and some parts of the Punjab. Though the invaders led several raids into the interior, particularly towards Malwa and Gujarat, the episodes were shortlived and the invaders were soon locked up in two garrison towns-Multan and Mansurah-by the Indian counter-at-tacks mounted from Delhi, Kanauj, Rajasthan, Malwa and Gujarat. Meanwhile, another thrust into Balkh which took place at the same time as that into Sindh resulted in the destruction of a renowned Buddhist Vihãra and the forcible conversion of the Pramukha family, the latter-day Barkamids of Baghdad.
Zabul (region around Ghazni) had defeated several Muslim invasions since 653 when Seistan became a base for Islamic armies. It, however, fell in 871 before an assault by the newly founded Saffãrid Dynasty of Persia, and was lost for ever to India as a result of its population being converted en masse to Islam. The Saffãrids were followed by the Sãmãnids of Bukhara; one of their governors occupied Ghazni in 963. It was from this base that North India was overwhelmed in stages, and passed under Muslim occupation towards the close of the twelfth century.
In subsequent centuries, Islamic invasions surged forward into Central and South India and established several centres of Muslim power. More centres of Muslim power arose in North India as well whenever the Muslim dynasties at Delhi/Agra suffered a decline. The Indian people and princes fought the invaders at every step and rose in revolt, again and again, for more than five hundred years. Finally, the war of resistance was transformed into a war of liberation and Islamic dominance disappeared from most parts of India during the eighteenth century. If British imperialism had not intervened and saved some remnants of Islamic imperialism, the Muslim invasion of India would have become a story found only in books of history, and India would have been left with no Muslim problem as in the case of Spain which also had been invaded and occupied by Muslims for several centuries.
Muslim Dynasties
The Muslim dynasties which functioned from Sindh and Ghazni undertook destruction of Hindu temples extensively whenever and wherever they succeeded in raiding or occupying Indian territory. The same pattern was followed by the Muslim dynasties established at Delhi/Agra. Their hold, however, did not extend beyond major cities and towns. An intensivedestruction of temples was undertaken by the Muslim dynasties which arose in the provinces-Sindh, Kashmir, Bengal, Avadh, Malwa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh. There is no truth in the assumption that the provincial dynasties were lenient to Hindus and their places of worship because they had to depend upon Hindu support against the imperial dynasties. The truce, if it took place at all, was temporary in most cases.
The Muslim dynasties which functioned from Sindh and Ghazni undertook destruction of Hindu temples extensively whenever and wherever they succeeded in raiding or occupying Indian territory. The same pattern was followed by the Muslim dynasties established at Delhi/Agra. Their hold, however, did not extend beyond major cities and towns. An intensivedestruction of temples was undertaken by the Muslim dynasties which arose in the provinces-Sindh, Kashmir, Bengal, Avadh, Malwa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh. There is no truth in the assumption that the provincial dynasties were lenient to Hindus and their places of worship because they had to depend upon Hindu support against the imperial dynasties. The truce, if it took place at all, was temporary in most cases.
Turkish raids.
Turkish rulers in the region north of the Oxus River were looking for new areas to conquer. They themselves were under military pressure from the Mongol tribes to the northeast in central Asia. Between 1000 and 1030 Mahmud of Ghazni led a series of devastating raids into India. He was a soldier of remarkable ability, and inspired his followers with zeal for conquest and financial reward. He destroyed the magnificent temples of Kanauj, Mathura, and Somnath. These shrines had become rich in land over the centuries, and now their sacred treasures were captured by the Muslim invaders. The gold and silver looted from the Hindu temples greatly enriched Sultan Mahmud and the Ghaznavid kingdom in Afghanistan. This booty also helped the Muslim economy in the Middle East, through an increased money supply. Mahmud was less successful in maintaining a grip on his conquests. When he died in 1030, he left a kingdom in the Punjab, but the rest of India remained independent of Muslim rule.
The Delhi Sultanate.
The Islamic conquest of India really began in 1192. Another Turkish ruler of Afghanistan, Muhammad of Ghor, invaded the Punjab. He defeated the Rajput chief Prithvi Raj Chauhan at the battle of Panipat. Within ten years his generals had overrun most of northern India as far as Bengal. Muhammad appointed a Turkish slave leader, Qutb al-Din Aybak, to be viceroy in Delhi. Between 1200 and 1210 this founder of the so-called "slave dynasty" consolidated Muslim conquests in India. He founded an empire, now known as the Delhi Sultanate. Like Mahmud of Ghazni, Qutb was a fanatical Muslim. He destroyed over a thousand temples in the Hindu holy city of Varanasi. In Delhi, he constructed a great mosque from stones taken from ruined Hindu temples, and commemorated his victories with a column 78 metres high.
The Islamic conquest of India really began in 1192. Another Turkish ruler of Afghanistan, Muhammad of Ghor, invaded the Punjab. He defeated the Rajput chief Prithvi Raj Chauhan at the battle of Panipat. Within ten years his generals had overrun most of northern India as far as Bengal. Muhammad appointed a Turkish slave leader, Qutb al-Din Aybak, to be viceroy in Delhi. Between 1200 and 1210 this founder of the so-called "slave dynasty" consolidated Muslim conquests in India. He founded an empire, now known as the Delhi Sultanate. Like Mahmud of Ghazni, Qutb was a fanatical Muslim. He destroyed over a thousand temples in the Hindu holy city of Varanasi. In Delhi, he constructed a great mosque from stones taken from ruined Hindu temples, and commemorated his victories with a column 78 metres high.
The Rajput rulers of northern India were unable to offer any real resistance to the Delhi sultans. This was partly because they were disunited, and partly because the Turkish military tactics, based on cavalry, were new to them. Indian rulers still relied on infantry, with war-elephants to put fear into enemy troops. However, Muslim political power was mainly confined to the Ganges valley. It was not until 1294 that the Muslim rulers of Delhi began another round of political expansion in India, this time to the south. The attacks were led by the Turkish general, and later sultan, Ala-ud-din Khallji. Muslim cavalry raided the Hindu kingdoms of the Deccan and Gujarat. They even reached Madura in the southern tip of the subcontinent. Once again these military expeditions brought large financial rewards to the Delhi Sultanate in the form of tribute paid by the Hindu princes, and treasure looted from the rich cities.
In 1258 the Mongols had conquered Baghdad and murdered the last of the Abbasid caliphs. Thereafter, the Mongols conquered large parts of the Middle East and began to turn their attention toward India. The Muslim rulers of Delhi were in danger of being overwhelmed by the Mongols. They needed money to pay for a large army. The richest coastal province of India, Gujarat, was brought under the permanent control of Delhi. Increased financial resources from the southern Indian campaigns, and a better taxation system, enabled the Delhi Sultanate to resist the Mongols.
The Tughluqs.
The most famous Turkish dynasty during the period of the Delhi Sultanate is that of the Tughluqs. The founder of this dynasty was Ghiyas al-Din. When he arrived in India from central Asia, he was a poor cavalry officer. As a general in the Indian army, he won 27 battles against the Mongols. His son, Muhammad Tughluq, was a strange, possibly insane man, whose actions bewildered people. Muhammad was a tireless soldier and administrator. At court, he encouraged poets, men of learning, and artists. But he punished his enemies and opponents with deaths so cruel as to horrify everyone. Among Muhammad's administrative innovations was the introduction of a currency of copper tokens, which had the same value as silver coins. The experiment proved a costly failure. He also tried to transfer the capital from Delhi to Devagiri (renamed Daulatabad) in the Deccan to the south. He forced all the city's people to move to the new capital. But after two years, he had to return to Delhi. Muhammad was succeeded by Firuz Shah Tughluq, a just and devout ruler. For the next 50 years the Delhi Sultanate enjoyed peace and prosperity.
The most famous Turkish dynasty during the period of the Delhi Sultanate is that of the Tughluqs. The founder of this dynasty was Ghiyas al-Din. When he arrived in India from central Asia, he was a poor cavalry officer. As a general in the Indian army, he won 27 battles against the Mongols. His son, Muhammad Tughluq, was a strange, possibly insane man, whose actions bewildered people. Muhammad was a tireless soldier and administrator. At court, he encouraged poets, men of learning, and artists. But he punished his enemies and opponents with deaths so cruel as to horrify everyone. Among Muhammad's administrative innovations was the introduction of a currency of copper tokens, which had the same value as silver coins. The experiment proved a costly failure. He also tried to transfer the capital from Delhi to Devagiri (renamed Daulatabad) in the Deccan to the south. He forced all the city's people to move to the new capital. But after two years, he had to return to Delhi. Muhammad was succeeded by Firuz Shah Tughluq, a just and devout ruler. For the next 50 years the Delhi Sultanate enjoyed peace and prosperity.
This peace ended in 1398, when the ferocious Mongol conqueror Tamerlane sacked Delhi. This brought the sultanate's golden age to an end. The Muslim empire in India broke up into a number of smaller warring kingdoms, each ruled by its own sultan.
About 1350 the Hindu state of Vijayanagar was founded on the Deccan plateau. This brought the whole of the south under Hindu control, and created a barrier against Muslim advance. The capital of the Vijayanagar Empire was one of the largest cities in India at the time. Its ruins cover an area about 15 kilometres wide. The city contained many beautiful temples, palaces, and parks with ornamental pools and water channels.
Sayyid dynasty,
Sayyid dynastyrulers of India’s Delhi sultanate (c. 1414–51) as successors of the Tughluq dynasty until displaced by the Afghan Lodīs. This family claimed to be sayyids, or descendants of the Prophet Muhammad. The central authority of the Delhi sultanate had been fatally weakened by the invasion of the Turkic conqueror Timur (Tamerlane) and his capture of Delhi in 1398. For the next 50 years, north India was virtually divided between a number of military chiefs, the strongest of whom were the Sharqī sultans of Jaunpur.
The first Sayyid ruler of Delhi was Khizr Khan (reigned 1414–21), who had been governor of the Punjab. He and his three successors occupied themselves in raids to collect revenue, barely maintaining themselves against the Sharqī sultans to the east and the Khokars to the northwest. Khizr’s successor, Mubārak Shah, had some success, but, after the latter’s assassination in 1434, his two successors, Muḥammad Shah and ʿĀlam Shah, proved incapable. ʿĀlam Shah abandoned Delhi for Badaun in 1448, and three years later Bahlūl Lodī, already ruler of the Punjab, seized Delhi and inaugurated the Lodī, the last dynasty of the Delhi sultanate.
Sayyid dynastyrulers of India’s Delhi sultanate (c. 1414–51) as successors of the Tughluq dynasty until displaced by the Afghan Lodīs. This family claimed to be sayyids, or descendants of the Prophet Muhammad. The central authority of the Delhi sultanate had been fatally weakened by the invasion of the Turkic conqueror Timur (Tamerlane) and his capture of Delhi in 1398. For the next 50 years, north India was virtually divided between a number of military chiefs, the strongest of whom were the Sharqī sultans of Jaunpur.
The first Sayyid ruler of Delhi was Khizr Khan (reigned 1414–21), who had been governor of the Punjab. He and his three successors occupied themselves in raids to collect revenue, barely maintaining themselves against the Sharqī sultans to the east and the Khokars to the northwest. Khizr’s successor, Mubārak Shah, had some success, but, after the latter’s assassination in 1434, his two successors, Muḥammad Shah and ʿĀlam Shah, proved incapable. ʿĀlam Shah abandoned Delhi for Badaun in 1448, and three years later Bahlūl Lodī, already ruler of the Punjab, seized Delhi and inaugurated the Lodī, the last dynasty of the Delhi sultanate.
Lodî Dynasty of Delhi/Agra (1451-1526)
The Tughlaq Dynasty had been succeeded at Delhi by the Sayyid Dynasty which ruled form 1412 to 1451. It was a weak dynasty and its last ruler invited Bahlûl Lodî, his governor of the Punjab, to take over. The second Lodî ruler shifted the capital from Delhi to Agra in order to be better able to dominate and expand into Central India. Of the 3 rulers of the Lodî Dynasty two figure in our citations:
2. Sikandar Lodî (1489-1517)
3. Ibrãhîm Lodî (1517-1526)
SOUTH INDIA
The history of South India covering a period of 2000 years saw the rise and fall of many dynasties and empires.The history of the region covered is only from the period King Ashoka ruled. The kingdom of Pratipalapura (5th century BCE) identified with Bhattiprolu, in Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh appears to be the earliest known kingdom of South India.King Kubera ruled Bhattiprolu around 230 BC followed by Sala kings.The script Brahmi Lipi got diversified later into modern Telugu and Tamil scripts.During Ashoka's rule(304-232 BCE), the three Tamil dynasties of Chola , Chera, and Pandya ruled the South.The areas of these kingdoms were known as Tamilakam"Land of Tamils".
SATAVAHANAS
This dynasty ruled a large portion of Central and South India.
They were the first Indian rulers to issue their coins with the portrait of the rulers , starting with king Gautamiputra Satakarni.They developed Buddhist art and culture.Stupas on Krishna River Valley were built by them, including Stupas at Amravati and Nagarjunakonda.A Buddhist University flourished at Nagarjunakonda.Satavahanas used Prakrit as their official language.
PANDYAS
The Pandyas was one of the three ancient Tamil dynasties( Cholas and Cheras being the other two) who ruled from prehistoric times until the end of 15th century.They ruled from Korka, a sea port and later ruled from Madurai.Pandyas are mentioned in Sangam Literature(100-200 CE).They went into decline with the rise of Cholas in the 9th century.Jatavarman Sundara Pandian expanded the empire into the Telugu region.Pandyas were in conflict with Pallavas, Cholas,and Hoyshalas and finally with Muslim invaders.The Pandian kingdom became extinct after the establishment of Madurai Sultanate in the 16th century.Pandyas developed pearl fisheries and produced the finest pearl in the world.
CHOLAS
Karikala Chola was a famous king ,who gained victories over Pandyas and Cheras.The Chola dynasty went into decline from 4th century .Vijayalaya Chola revived the Chola dynasty in 850CE by conquering Tanjavur and making it the capital.His son, Aditya I defeated Pallava king Aparajita.One of the most powerful rulers of Chola kingdom was Raja Raja Chola.He ruled from 985-1014CE.His army conquered the Cheras at Tiruvanandapuram.Rajendra Chola I conquered Sri Lanka.The Chola dynasty declined by 1279.Cholas were great builders and developed Dravidian Temple architecture.Brihadishwara Temple of Tanjavur is a fine example and is considered UN's World Heritage Site
CHERAS
The Cheras ruled until around 15th century.The early Cholas ruled over Malabar coast, Coimbatore, Namakkal, Karur, Salem.Trade brought prosperity to Kerala with spices ,ivory, timber pearls and gems.
PALLAVAS
The Pallavas were a great South Indian dynasty who ruled between the 3rd century CE until their decline in the 9th century CE.Their capital was Kancheepuram.Mahendra Verman I was a prominent Pallava king who began work on the rock -cut temples at Mahabalipuram.His son,Narasimha Verman I came to throne in 630CE.He defeated Chalukya king Pulakesi II in 632CE.Pallavas and Pandyas dominated the southern region.
KADANBA OF BANAVASI (345-525CE),GANGAS OF TALKAD(350-550CE)
CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI
Pulakesi I was the first king of Chalukyas. He ruled from Badami, the present day Bijapur in Karnataka. Pulakesi II is most remembered for the battle won against Harsh Vardhana in 637 AD He also defeated Pallava king Mahandraverman I. The Chalukyas ruled from (543-757CE)
RASHTRAKUTA OF MANYAKHETA
They ruled from 737-982 CE and reached its peak under Amoghavarsha I (814-878 CE)Rashtrakuta were responsible for building some of the rock-cut temples of Ellora including the Kailasa Temple.Kannada literature flourished.
CHALUKYAS OF KALYANI
They came to power at the decline of Rashtrakuta.The empire reached its peak under Vikramaditya VI.This period was considered as The Golden Age of Kannada literature.
HOYSHALAS
They ruled Karnataka for over three centuries from 1000-1342 CE.the most famous kings were Vishnuvardhana, Veera Bellala II and Veera Bellala III.Jainism flourished during Hoyshala period. Ramanuja , the founder of Shri Vaishnavism came to Hoyshala king to spread his religion.Hoyshala encouraged both Kannada and Sanskrit literatures.
KAKATIYAS
They came after the decline of Chalukyas and ruled Andhra Pradesh,, Orissa,Maharashtra,Chattisgarh and Karnataka.Ganapatideva was its great ruler.The dynasty lasted for three centuries.Warangal was its capital.Allauddin Khilji made attacks but could not conquer .It was eventually conquered by the combined forces of Mohammed Bin Tuglaq in 1323.
MUSUNURI
After the downfall of Kakatiyas, two cousins known as Musunuri Nayaks rebelled against Delhi Sultanate and brought the whole Telugu speaking areas under their control.Although short lived for 50 years, the Nayak rule is a watershed in the history of South India.Their rule inspired the establishment of Vijayanagara empire to defend Hindu Dharma for the next 5 centuries.
VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE
The empire was founded in early 14th century and lasted for 200 years. Vijayanagara was conquered by the combined forces of the Deccan Sultanate in the Battle of Tellikota.The Humpi ruins are scattered over an area of 14 sq miles. Telugu literature peeked during this time.With the fall of Vijayanagara and the breakup of the Brahmi Sultanate, the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda and Hyderabad became the dominant power.Qutb Shahi continued upto 17th century when Moghuls under Aurangazeb made inroads in Deccan.Golconda was conquered in 1687.
Mughal dynasty,
Mughal also spelled Mogul, Arabic Mongol, Muslim dynasty of Turkic-Mongol origin that ruled most of northern India from the early 16th to the mid-18th century, after which it continued to exist as a considerably reduced and increasingly powerless entity until the mid-19th century. The Mughal dynasty was notable for its more than two centuries of effective rule over much of India, for the ability of its rulers, who through seven generations maintained a record of unusual talent, and for its administrative organization. A further distinction was the attempt of the Mughals, who were Muslims, to integrate Hindus and Muslims into a united Indian state.
The dynasty was founded by a Chagatai Turkic prince named Bābur (reigned 1526–30), who was descended from the Turkic conqueror Timur on his father’s side and from Chagatai, second son of the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan, on his mother’s side. Ousted from his ancestral domain in Central Asia, Bābur turned to India to satisfy his appetite for conquest. From his base in Kabul he was able to secure control of the Punjab, and in 1526 he routed the forces of the Delhi sultan Ibrāhīm Lodī at the First Battle of Panipat. The following year he overwhelmed the Rajput confederacy under Rana Sanga of Mewar, and in 1529 he defeated the Afghans of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. At his death in 1530 he controlled all of northern India from the Indus River on the west to Bihar on the east and from the Himalayas south to Gwalior.
Bābur’s son Humāyūn (reigned 1530–40 and 1555–56) lost control of the empire to Afghan rebels, but Humāyūn’s son Akbar (reigned 1556–1605) defeated the Hindu usurper Hemu at the Second Battle of Panipat (1556) and thereby reestablished his dynasty in Hindustan. The greatest of the Mughal emperors and an extremely capable ruler, Akbar reestablished and consolidated the Mughal Empire. Through incessant warfare, he was able to annex all of northern and part of central India, but he adopted conciliatory policies toward his Hindu subjects and sought to enlist them in his armies and government service. The political, administrative, and military structures that he created to govern the empire were the chief factor behind its continued survival for another century and a half. At Akbar’s death in 1605 the empire extended from Afghanistan to the Bay of Bengal and southward to Gujarat and the northern Deccan.
Akbar’s son Jahāngīr (reigned 1605–27) continued both his father’s administrative system and his tolerant policy toward Hinduism and thus proved to be a fairly successful ruler. His son, Shah Jahān (reigned 1628–58), had an insatiable passion for building, and under his rule the Taj Mahal and the Great Mosque of Delhi, among other monuments, were erected. His reign marked the cultural zenith of Mughal rule, but his military expeditions brought the empire to the brink of bankruptcy. Jahāngīr’s tolerant and enlightened rule stood in marked contrast to the Muslim religious bigotry displayed by his more orthodox successor,Aurangzeb (reigned 1658–1707). Aurangzeb annexed the Muslim Deccan kingdoms ofBijapur and Golconda and thereby brought the empire to its greatest extent, but his political and religious intolerance laid the seeds of its decline. He excluded Hindus from public office and destroyed their schools and temples, while his persecution of the Sikhs of the Punjab turned that sect against Muslim rule and roused rebellions among the Rajputs, Sikhs, and Marathas. The heavy taxes he levied steadily impoverished the farming population, and a steady decay in the quality of Mughal government was thus matched by a corresponding economic decline. When Aurangzeb died in 1707, he had failed to crush the Marathas of the Deccan, and his authority was disputed throughout his dominions.
During the reign of Muḥammad Shah (1719–48), the empire began to break up, a process hastened by dynastic warfare, factional rivalries, and the Iranian conqueror Nādir Shah’s brief but disruptive invasion of northern India in 1739. After the death of Muḥammad Shah in 1748, the Marathas overran almost all of northern India. Mughal rule was reduced to only a small area around Delhi, which passed under Maratha (1785) and then British (1803) control. The last Mughal, Bahādur Shah II (reigned 1837–57), was exiled to Yangon, Myanmar (Rangoon, Burma) by the British after his involvement with the Indian Mutiny of 1857–58.
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